Fruit & Vegetables A Beginners Guide to Edible Weeds

Weeds.

They have been living alongside humanity as far back as there is memory, written or oral. But what is a weed, even? Why is it that some plants naturally acquire this most dreaded of all titles, whereas others grow happily under the radar, as it were? Do they even know they are hated and despised for their natural habits?

Any discussion of weeds naturally must deal with the fact that they are a human psychological category of plants. There are certain types of plants that people innately dislike due to their ability to propagate themselves in places where the humans do not want them to grow, especially in commercially-farmed agricultural fields and private gardens. A whole billion-dollar industry is based on this premise: the solution to these pesky interlopers is prejudiced chemical extermination, including going to such insane extremes as genetic experimentation to make desired crops (like GMO 'glyphosate-resistant' soy, canola, corn and wheat) immune to the chemicals that are sprayed haphazardly on the farmer's bitter enemy, weeds.

These articles hope to explore a more ancient approach to 'weeds'. For thousands of years prior to the modern age, many plants now designated 'weeds' were sought out for their medicinal and culinary contributions to human existence. While it may be a laborious suggestion for the commercial agricultural farmer, the avid home gardener, whose interest may lie in the production of wholesome, organic, chemical-free produce, should take an active appreciation in the edible properties of many common weeds plaguing their plots. By considering weeds by their potential endless harvests and culinary usefulness, rather than as targets of brutal chemical regimes, an ideal solution to this perpetual human problem emerges. Can I eat that weed?!

Nowadays there is another movement, cover cropping, whereby entire fields of 'weeds' are sown, grown and plowed under for the purposes of soil conditioning. And what better candidate is there for this purpose than your humble, everyday, pavement crack-occupying weed? There is no plant more successful in the world. They grow quickly, occupy barren, disturbed ground first and foremost before larger plants take over their hard-won real estate, drawing up helpful micro-nutrients like manganese, boron, molybdenum and calcium, which can then be returned to the soil for the real crop.

That is not to say there are some truly devastating feral weeds introduced to places they ought not be. Lantana (Lantana camara) is an Australian example; kudzu (Pueraria spp.) in the USA. Both have thrived due to their propagation habits and general lack of competition from the natives species, and are rightly exterminated with extreme prejudice wherever they are found. There would be a thousand others. But even the latter of these, kudzu, has edible tubers and flowers, being long in use in their native Japan, Korea and China, and the leaves have been used as stock feed. The fully ripe, black berries of the much-hated lantana are also perfectly edible (but their seeds or green fruits are not, take care!), which leaves the question hanging: what is a weed, even, when we can utilise even these if we wanted to?

I will proceed in the articles to follow on an entirely arbitrary basis, preferring those edible weeds which are most common or delectable. This article shall also not be specific to Australia, as most, if not all, of the edible weeds to be covered here will be available in some form or another on every continent save Antarctica. I will only deal cautiously with medicinal preparations, if any, preferring to refer the interested reader to more expert literature on that subject. Each article will be organised into my previous Aussie Bush Food organisational scheme: Names, Habitat and Range, Identification, including must-tick Key Identifying Features, and Uses, both Culinary and Medicinal, with special Cautions regarding toxins or Lookalikes as necessary. Finally, each article concludes with Further Reading suggestions for the voracious student.

Resources

For those wishing to get a head start, I cannot recommend enough the following literature, to which I will be referencing extensively throughout this article series.


Green Deane, author of the Eat the Weeds website [LINK] and Youtube [LINK], also has more than a thousand pages of information regarding edible weeds, fruits and seeds that the novice forager should definitely profit from exploring.

For the medicinal uses of the weeds to follow, I refer the interested reader to the following thorough and detailed works which shall likewise be cited throughout. Not every plant has known or worthwhile medicinal applications (e.g. sow thistle is missing from all of these works).


Summary

I hope this series serves an important purpose in our modern, ignorant world. Free food grows literally everywhere around us, for where there are weeds, there is food. It may not have massive carb loads like farmed potatoes or corn, or sugar loads like commercial fruit, but the sooner modern humanity realises this ancient lesson, that free food is all around us all the time, the less we will be tempted to rely on Big Ag, Big Chem and their emerging fake factory food industries which are really prisons in disguise.

"Control the food and you control the people," a Washington fat-cat is once reputed to have said. Well, you cannot control the weeds, therefore you cannot control the food. Ha!

Foraging is as ancient as humanity, having been with us as long as weeds have. From the very beginning of every civilisation's memory, written or oral, people had to figure out what was edible, nutritious, desirable, medicinal and just plain old aesthetic (pretty). Culinary traditions inevitably developed from this basic element of human inquisitiveness, and we have the thousands, if not millions, of bold, intrepid survivalists to thank who tried, and survived, the myriad of edible plants, fruits and fungi the archives of knowledge now present to us in such an easily accessible form such as this.

Foraging Gear

The forager's essential kit should almost always include the following, unless you are a reliably close distance to home or edible weeding your own garden:

• A backpack, preferably also containing a raincoat, jumper, water bottle, sunscreen, insect repellent, snacks and, where permissible, ammunition for your daily carry.
• Excellent footwear (gumboots/wellingtons are great, as are my old army boots)
• Trousers, even in summer
• A hat
• Gardening gloves for the prickly ones
• A pocket knife or multi-tool (and, where permitted, your concealed carry)
• A digging stick or garden trowel (digging sticks can always be acquired on site and discarded after use, unlike heavier steel implements)
• A basket, bucket or bag to carry your treasures home.

There's probably more, but these are the essentials if you intend to travel more than a comfortable walking distance from home, especially if it involves a road trip somewhere new.

Foraging Risks

Foraging for weeds comes with inevitable risks. Lookalikes, poisonous or otherwise, are an ever-present threat to the novice forager. Location of harvest is also important. Some plants, especially weedy plants, excel at drawing out heavy metals and other environmental toxins from the soil and store it in their leaves, stems, fruits and roots. Foraging within 100m (100 yards) of a busy road, i.e. anything more than a quiet back-street, especially roads frequented regularly by diesel vehicles, is ill advised for this reason. Historical spills of dangerous chemicals may also have occurred in an area unbeknownst to the casual forager, tainting both soil and waterways; only detailed local knowledge will comprehend such crucial details. Lastly, local councils and county governments are wont to spray carcinogenic herbicides like glyphosate on everything in every park or pavement deemed 'weed', native or not, just because it's growing in some unsightly place, leaving a permanent toxic legacy in their wake. Being aware of these local poisoning schedules can make the difference between a nutritious foraging experience and a trip to the oncologist.

There are, of course, other risks than these. Foraging for edible weeds may take the intrepid gourmet to some precarious locations: cliff edges, waterfalls, swamps, beaches, roadside kerbs, crocodile-infested billabongs, mother-in-law's vegetable patch, etc. Being attentive to one's surroundings, despite the excitement of spotting a favourite, is always recommended. In some places, wildlife may pose a danger. Australia may be free of bears, wolves and lions, but we have a large number of poisonous snakes and spiders that call the scrub home, and the aforementioned crocs in the tropics. I personally cannot recall a foraging experience where I have not brought home at least one spider amidst my haul of loot (usually tiny ones, as small as a full stop, but once I brought home a moderately sized ogre-faced spider who now lives on my balcony). Other places may get extremely hot, extremely cold, extremely windy or extremely stormy at a moment's notice. Taking the time to plan and call off an outing in bad weather is still wise advice. Even better is foraging with an experienced guide who knows what they're doing and where they're going.

Lastly, make sure you know how to prepare your fare. Many common edible weeds are high in oxalic acid, a naturally-occurring plant chemical that readily binds to ionic elements in the blood, especially calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and manganese, potentially resulting in nutritional deficiencies, bone degeneration and kidney stones. But a 1 or 2 minute blanch (discard the water!) and rinse destroys most of the oxalic acid content in plant material, thus making such items good tucker. Other weeds may cause allergic reactions in some people, e.g. pellitory (asthma plant). I found out only recently that I am horrendously allergic to one or more native Australian grass seeds (I was picking three different ones on the day and I'm not sure which one is the culprit); I shall not be picking them again! Just because you can eat that weed without breaking out in a sudden rash, sneezing fit, waterfall nose or anaphylactic shock doesn't mean your friend sitting at table can too! Remember the flowchart of experimentation:


Try new things with care, and if everything's okay, gusto away! Additionally, many common weeds have poisonous lookalikes or poisonous parts. This makes positive identification the most important component of wild food foraging. If you are not 100% certain you have ticked off every relevant key identifier for your suspected edible, leave it behind. Then you can be next to guaranteed there will be a next time!

A final note for housekeeping: spp. in the botanical (Latin) names or article titles refers to all species in the genus (sp. = species, singular; spp. = species, plural).

Without further ado, let's get to the plants!

If there was a plant that is the definition of weed, it is this one, an ubiquitous weed for almost the whole world. But why? It's edible! © JPM, 2022.

Names

Hailing from the lettuce-relative genus Sonchus (S.), it should be little surprise that these plants have gained a large number of monikers around the world. In the English language they are commonly known as thistle, sow thistle, hare lettuce, hare's colewort, milky tassel, soft thistle, and milk thistle (incorrectly!), and probably a few more names besides. The most common species is S. oleraceus, prolific the world over, but I will not get bogged down in many species and subspecies in this article except where relevant.

Habitat and Range

Sonchus are mostly annual weeds, although some species, like S. arvensis, S. acaulis, S. arborous and the tree-like S. canariensis, endemic to the Canary Islands only, have substantial root and stems that make them perennial. They pop up everywhere after a good rain. They will appear in fields, meadows, prairies, forests, parks, lawns and sidewalk cracks seemingly from no-where, wherever their airborne seeds have flown, stealing nitrogen and valuable nutrients much to the chagrin of gardeners and farmers. They prefer cooler, temperate climes, although they can be found in some arid regions, sprouting quickly after rains in their dash to spawn seed before the burning sun reduces them to crisps once more. Sow thistle eagerly colonises disturbed ground such as farmland, clearings, roadsides, rail corridors and backyard gardens, a testament to its weedy success.

Figure 1. Distribution of Sonchus (all species) across the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Young plants grow in a basal rosette from a splay of taproots
• A single stem grows upward from the taproots (but these can branch/resprout if cut off)
• Growing stems are hollow
• Stem and leaf sap is a milky white latex, produced abundantly when cut
• Leaves are soft and tender, tasting like lettuce but increasing in bitterness with age
• Leaves are typically arrow-head and lobed/serrated but have great variety
• Leaves often a target for leaf-miner and aphids love the stems
• Mature leaves are connected to and wrap around the growing stem
• Mature plants are 60-175+ cm tall.
• Flowers emerge on branching buds at the tip of the growing stem
• Flowers are yellow of the 'ray' type, similar to dandelion
• Flowers wither after pollination and form 'puffballs'
• Seeds disperse by wind on airborne parachutes

Sow thistle is probably the world's most recognisable weed. There would hardly be a garden anywhere without this interloper happily sprouting somewhere in it. As such, mastering identification is a relatively simple affair. Young plants have distinctive foliage, always growing from a taproot in a basal rosette pattern. These young plants often have arrow-head leaf tips with a slender stem connecting them to the main stem emerging from the taproot. As leaves mature, they can develop more ribbing or serrations, and mature leaves wrap entirely around the growing stem and protrude out the opposite side.

Figure 2. A very young sow thistle, probably two weeks old. Note the arrow-head leaf tips and thin leaf stems on these young plants. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. Young sow thistle starting to develop mature foliage. See also header image at the top of article for a depiction of these mature leaves wrapping around the central growing stem. © JPM, 2022.


Sow thistle has a great variety of mature leaf shapes, and some species may exhibit a purple tinge in their central veins and stems.

Figure 4. Two entirely different sow thistle leaf types: arrow-head type on the upper-right, serrated type on the lower-left. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 5. Closeup of a serrated-type, with mature leaves above, clearly wrapping around the whole growing stem. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 6. A purple-type with lance-tip leaves. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 7. Prickly-type growing under a park fence. The plant just to the right and left is fleabane (genus Conyza) © JPM, 2022.


Figure 8. Hybrid type, serrated and arrow-head. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 9. Healthy, mature plants growing amidst abundant rain can have large leaves, such as this specimen. Note my hand for scale. © JPM, 2022.


Sow thistle have distinctive, hollow stems that will ooze their white latex sap when cut.

Figure 10. Example of the hollow stem. Note also how the leaf wraps entirely around the stem on this older plant. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 11. Hollow stem oozing latex (with aphids, black, bottom). © JPM, 2022.


Sow thistle leaves are also the common target of aphids and leaf-miner, so much so that this should be an identifying feature. Healthier plants are usually aphid-free.

Figure 12. Example of leaf-miner, a grub from a species of fly (usually genus Liriomyza but also some Lepidoptera) in a sow thistle plant. © JPM, 2022.


Flowers appear on the growing tips in multiples; some plants can have dozens or more flowers at a time. The flowers set quickly, within a week at most, into the fluffy, white puffballs. Once they dry out enough, a zephyr is enough to dislodge the seeds from the stem and send the parachute on its merry way into your garden.

Figure 13. Dandelion-like yellow, 'ray' flowers and buds. These are edible (quite tasty, actually) and can be chewed or thrown in salads. © JPM, 2022.

Figure 14. Flowers, buds and puffballs, all resembling dandelion and the reason these plants are so widespread. © JPM, 2022.


Culinary Uses

True rabbit food, sow thistle, for humans, is a salad plant. A wild relative of cultivated lettuce, young plants taste very much like lettuce and can be used fresh in salads of any kind (and ought to have been during the Australian lettuce crisis of early 2022, the more so given how many of them there are after all the rain). Look for plants which lack leaf miner damage and aphids (unless you like eating worms and bugs I guess). Older plants begin to develop bitterness in the foliage, which can be cooked out of them or masked my mixing cooked leaves with other culinary elements. As such, older leaves are best used cooked in stews, pureed soups, pastas, spanikopita-style pastries, pies, quiches etc.

Some species have fairly substantial edible taproots (Duke, 2001: 186-187) which have bitter skins like dandelion. But unlike dandelions, Sonchus taproots tend to splay early and have significant woody cores (much more so than dandelion). They are best roasted until crispy and ground into powder to use as a tea, or deep fried tempura-style.

Figure 15. Taproots of a sow thistle plant. They tend to be bitter, and are best cooked with other things like tempura or roasted and ground to use as a piquant tea. © JPM, 2022.

Sow thistle is a decent source of calcium, vitamin A and vitamin C.

All species of Sonchus are fairly attractive to sucking insects like aphids. As a result, they can be left in gardens as a sacrificial plant, so the bugs are not targeting other plants. Or maybe it will just multiply their numbers and the other plants will get attacked anyway?

Medicinal Uses

Sonchus has no reported medicinal uses in any of the source material other than a brief comment that it may assist with liver issues, topical skin problems and possess anti-cancer agents (Apelian, 2021: 113).

Look-alikes

Sonchus can be confused with young wild lettuce plants (genus Lactuca), which will be covered in a later article as it, too, is a potentially edible salad weed. It can be easily distinguished from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), catsear (Hypochaeris radicata) and other basal-rosette plants of the daisy family by the fact that only Sonchus has a tall, central growing stem.

Figure 16. Can you tell the difference? One is sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), the other wild lettuce (Lactuca serriola). © JPM, 2022.

Answer: Lactuca on the left, Sonchus on the right.

Caution - Herbicides!

This hated weed, which really ought to be on our dinner plates year-round, is so despised that it is haphazardly sprayed with glyphosate and other carcinogenic herbicides everywhere, especially by farmers. Harvest sow thistle from areas where these poisons are not typically in use, like your own garden, wild meadows, forest trails and quiet rural back-alleys.

Further Reading

Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 113.
Atlas of Living Australia, "Sonchus." [LINK]
Bonetto (2020), "How to Identify and Use Sow Thistle, the Perfect Edible Weed." [LINK]
Deane (2012), "Sonchus: Sow Thisle in a Pig's Eye." [LINK]
Duke (2001), Edible Weeds, pp. 186-187.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 106-110.
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, p. 33.

A declared noxious weed Australia-wide, will you help eat this plant to extermination (in Oz)?

Names

A member of the ever-popular Allium (A.) genus, Allium triquetrum is the Latin botanical moniker given to this menace weed. Its popular name, angled onion, comes from its triangular flower stems and angled leaves. The Latin actually translates into three-corner(ed) garlic, which is another common name. Other names include 'That damned weed' and 'What are all these accursed plants growing?!' (I just made those up for a laugh). In the USA and Canada it can be known as 'snow bells'.

Habitat and Range

Angled onion originates from south-western Europe (Spain-Portugal), north-west Africa (Morocco), Madeira and the Canary Islands, but has been introduced by humans, deliberately or otherwise, to other places in the world such as Britain, New Zealand, Turkey, and some states in the USA (esp. California and Oregon) where it is generally not welcome any longer. This smaller relative of garlic and brown onion is a successful weed, being spread easily by its seeds which exhibit a chemical making them highly attractive to seed-gathering ants, who carry them father than they would otherwise spread by themselves. It has been noticed in Australia, particularly the southern state of Victoria, since the 1920s, but especially since the 1940s. Two preserved specimens from 1909 exist in the State Herbarium of South Australia (Atlas of Living Australia).

Angled onion prefers sheltered, moist underbrush in temperate climes, especially in the south of Australia. It can be found prolifically along roadside culverts, drainage ditches, freshwater creeks, lakes, dams and other places where it can occupy rich, wet soil in mostly-shaded situations. It is especially common in Victoria, but also becoming a nuisance in parts of South Australia, Western Australia, New South Wales and Tasmania. Where it grows, it can often become prolific and choke out native species, hence the 'noxious' tag it has been given.

Figure 1. Distribution of Allium triquetrum across the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Slender, chive-like leaves angled in a V shape with a prominent vein behind, 15-40 cm in length
• Grows from a small white bulb, similar to spring onion or garlic.
• Flower stems are triangular (three-cornered), 30-50 cm in length
• Flowers are white, 5-7 petals, 5-7 yellow anther tips with green stripes down the throat
• Leaves and bulbs emit a faint onion or garlic-like odour when crushed

Angled onion is not difficult to identify, although it is probably possible to confuse with some native lilies with similar flowers. Look for a grass-like plant that has leaves angled in a V-shape with a prominent vein at the back. The plants flower prolifically, especially in spring (September-December), and the small, trumpet-shaped flowers are quite distinctive because of their three-cornered stems and green stripes down the throat of each petal. Lastly, the flower stems and leaves all emerge from small, yellow-white bulbs which resemble small scallions; older bulbs start to multiply segments just like garlic does.

Figure 2. Close-up of the V-shaped leaf, demonstrating the prominent back-vein along the length. It could be confused with some grasses if not for its scent when crushed. Avenel, Victoria. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. Flowers demonstrating green striping and anthers. Not well illustrated: the triangular flower stem. Apollo Bay, Victoria. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 4. The base of angled onion prior to uprooting looks very much like spring onion. The tri-cornered, fleshy flower stems are a little more apparent here, especially the stem on the right, twisting out to bottom of image from under my fingertips. Avenel, Victoria. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 5. Extracted bulbs, stems and all. Apollo Bay, Victoria. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 6. Bulbs after being washed and de-rooted. I was going to plant them in a pot but my wife did not like them so they were eaten instead. © JPM, 2022.


Culinary Uses

Angled onion is a pleasant plant to eat, raw or cooked. Every part of the plant is edible: leaves, stems, flowers and bulbs. It has a flavour about half-way between onion and garlic, being generally mild and delicate on the palate. Thus, it is suitable as a substitute for spring onion (scallion) for soups, stir fries, savoury pancakes, casseroles and all manner of Asian cuisine where spring onion features regularly. Look for plants that are vibrant, green, erect and when harvesting, please remove the whole thing, bulb, roots, flowers and all.

Figure 7. Korean haemul pajeon, seafood onion pancake, prepared with the angled onions I acquired in Victoria. You'd have thought they were spring onions if I didn't tell you otherwise. © JPM, 2022.

If more Australians, particularly in Victoria, joined in the quest to eat this plant to death, we might have the first edible victory over an invasive weed. Beats introducing cane toads to eat them (they won't).

Medicinal Uses

Scant information is available on this plant in established herbal manuals. It is likely it may have some cross-overs with the medicinal properties of garlic (Allium sativum) and onion (Allium cepa) due to the presence of similar beneficial sulphur compounds (allicin and alliin; see Chevallier, 1996: 56 & 162).

Look-Alikes

Two very similar plants found across Australia are onion weed (Nothoscordum gracile) and the Naples onion (Allium neopolitanum). The differences will be explained in the article on onion weed, but since they are all edible there is little risk associated with misidentification. Note that other continents such as North America, Europe and Asia may have other species of 'onion weed', and the intrepid forager is advised to research carefully any potential look-alikes in their own area.

Further Reading

Atlas of Living Australia, "Allium triquetrum." [LINK]
Chevallier (1996), Medicinal Plants, pp. 56 & 162.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 27-30.

If there was another weed which is the definition of 'weed', it is dandelion. © JPM, 2022.

Names

Hailing from the genus Taraxacum (T.), the English 'dandelion' apparently originates from an ancient Norman (French) word, dent-de-lion, Lion's Teeth, probably after the ragged edges of the leaves or the tooth-like taproots (Low 1991: 25; Grubb & Raser-Rowland 2012: 49). Most species found in the wild will be T. officinale, but there are hundreds of subspecies, some of various medical and commercial interest such as the Russian dandelion (T. kok-saghyz) farmed for its rubber latex and potential replacement of the pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).

Habitat and Range

Dandelion has a global distribution (saving Antarctica), although it is less common in the tropics and arid regions. Dandelion prefers subtropical and temperate zones, often growing as a biannual in the former and annual in the latter. It is an extremely adventurous plant and regular first occupier of disturbed ground such as tilled gardens and fields and cleared land. It will happily occupy pavement cracks, lawns and parks, in shady or full sun locations, and can often spring up through mulch cover.

Figure 1. Distribution of Taraxacum around the sunburnt continent. Atlas of Living Australia.



Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Plant grows from a solid, parsnip-like taproot
• Stemless (except for flower stalks)
• Leaves, 5-20 cm in length, emerge from taproot in a 'basal rosette' pattern
• Leaves are usually jagged, coming to an arrow-head tip (older leaves may lose much of this shape)
• Leaf stems may redden near the taproot end
• Flowers emerge on hollow stalks (2 to 40 cm in length) that turn brown-red with age
• Only ever one flower per stalk
• Flowers are bright yellow, 'ray' type
• Flowers set into white 'puffballs' blown upon by children everywhere
• Seeds fly on airborne parachutes ('pappus')
• Leaf, flower stalks and root skin will bleed a white latex when cut

Dandelion plants are easily spotted in lawns, pavements and parks by their basal rosette leaf pattern (see header image at top of this article). There are many common weeds that look similar, however (see below). Leaves are usually jagged, but older plants can lose much of that ragged shape. True dandelion, unlike its many look-alikes, only ever has one flower per flower stalk, its key identifying feature. Flower stalks are hollow and may turn brownish-red as the flowers set into those distinctive puff balls picked, wished and blown upon by children across the globe. Dandelion has a substantial taproot which will also bleed white latex if the skin is slashed. The starchy taproot is white inside, often with a woody core similar to parsnip.

Figure 2. The basal rosette pattern, common to many plants of the Asteraceae family, to which dandelion (Taraxacum spp.) belongs. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. Leaf variation on old (1+ years, left) and younger (right) dandelion plants. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 4. Dandelion bud and open flower. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 5. Dandelion puffball, loved by children everywhere. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 6. Flower stalks are hollow and bleed milky latex freely. Older stalks, especially those about to release seed, also start to take on a browish-red colour. © JPM, 2022.

Figure 7. Leaves also bleed milky latex when cut. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 8. The substantial taproot of a medium sized dandelion. Note the reddening of the leaf stems near the taproot. © JPM, 2022.

Figure 9. The taproot after peeling is white, starchy and very much resembles a parsnip. © JPM, 2022.

Culinary Uses

Dandelion is regarded as a 'superfood' by the US department of Agriculture due to its intense nutrient density. A 100g serve of dandelion (all parts - leaves, flowers, roots) will supply a significant portion of any human's daily requirements of iron, calcium, vitamins A, B6, E & K, and thiamine (Grubb & Raser-Rowland, 2012: 48-49). Dandelion flowers are high in alpha- and beta-carotene, and the roots contain inulin and lecithin, substances with medicinal properties we shall return to below.

All parts of the plant are edible, although the leaves, flower stems and taproot skins (basically all the parts containing the white latex) are quite bitter, requiring significant culinary reorientation to appreciate. The bitterness subsides substantially with cooking or the application of an acid, e.g. lemon juice (Apelian 2021: 60). Dandelion leaves can be added fresh, sparingly, to salads; I have enjoyed them as a salad substitute on home-made burgers during the Great Australian Lettuce Shortage of 2022, as well as chopped and mixed with egg (or tuna/salmon) & mayonnaise on sandwiches. They cook well in soups, stews, stir fries, quiches and pastries (e.g. spanakopita), adding a massive nutrient boost to any dish.

Figure 10. Pumpkin, sweet potato, carrot, dandelion and wattleseed soup, probably my craziest concoction to date. It was amazing! © JPM, 2022.


Roots can be baked whole (45 mins @ 180°C), although peeling reduces their bitterness immensely but at the cost of substance. They taste very much like roast parsnip. Some like to roast unpeeled roots until they turn crispy brown, virtually dehydrated, then grind them into a coarse powder resembling ground coffee and then use as a drink by adding boiling water in a mug or teapot (1/2 to 2 tsp per 250 ml). Roots harvested in autumn have the most nutrition as the plant prepares to survive winter by fattening the taproot with starches and minerals.

Figure 11. Roasted dandelion root. The black part is the woody core, which leaches out a resinous (but not unpleasant) colour during roasting. Peeled, the taste is very akin to roast parsnip with a faint bitter hint lingering on the palate. Bitterness is more intense if you do not peel them. © JPM, 2022.


Medicinal Uses

Medicinally, dandelion was associated with liver conditions due to the 'Doctrine of Signatures.' The yellowing of the skin and eyes due to jaundice was to be remedied with the yellow flowers of dandelion and similar plants. Interestingly, the plant (especially the flowers and roots) are high in lecithin and inulin, carbohydrates that greatly improve liver health. Soy lecithin has been proven as a liver tonic reducing hepatitis and cirrhosis, which dandelion has even higher quantities than soy (Duke 2001: 192; Apelian & Davis 2020: 68-69), making it ideal for those seeking to recover from drug and alcohol additions (or toxic lipid-nanoparticle vaccinations) damaging that crucial organ. Apelian & Davis (2020: 69) suggest a Liver Tonic made from an extract of both roasted dandelion root and milk thistle (Silybum marianum) seeds, which reversed one of her patient's need for a liver transplant.

Dandelion latex is also a potent antifungal and antibacterial agent. It can be applied directly to ringworm, tinea, eczema, acne, warts, corns and skin cancers to help healing. Caution is advised, however - people who are allergic to plants in the daisy family (chysanthemum, marigold, ragweed etc) may break out in topical dermatitis when exposed to dandelion latex (Apelian & Davis 2020: 70). As covered above, the latex of the Russian species (T. kok-saghyz) is a known rubber substitute (Crampton, 2022). Rubber can be extracted from the roots by roasting and grinding them to powder (the rubber separates out), or by immersing roots in a 3% Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution suspended in a water bath at 90°C (Göbel & Gröger, 2018).

Look-alikes

Dandelion can be easily confused with other plants that have similar jagged leaves growing in a basal rosette: catsear (Hypochaeris radicata), hawksbit (Leontodon taraxacoides), oxtongue (Helminthotheca echioides), and perhaps younger thistles (Sonchus spp.) and young wild lettuce (Lactuca serriola, L. virosa & L. saligna). In Australia, the native yam daisy or murnong (Microseris scapigera) has very similar flowers, but noticeably different lance-shaped leaves and round tubers. All of these weedy plants are edible and will be covered in detail in the rest of this series (except murnong, which belongs in my Australian Bush Tucker series).

Further Reading

Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 60.
Apelian & Davis (2020), Herbal Remedies, pp. 68-70.
Atlas of Living Australia, "Taraxacum." [LINK]
Bonetto (2020), "5 Recipes for Your Dandelion Weeds." [LINK]
Chevallier (1996), Medicinal Plants, p. 140.
Crampton, L. (2022). "Common and Russian Dandelions: Nutrition, Latex and Rubber." [LINK]
Deane (2012), "Dandelions: Hear them Roar!" [LINK]
Duke (2001), Edible Weeds, pp. 192-193.
Duke (2002), Medicinal Herbs, pp. 243-244.
Göbel, M. & M. Gröger (2018). "Turning dandelions into rubber: the road to a sustainable future." [LINK]
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 48-53.
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, pp. 25-26.

Catsear doing what they do best! © JPM, 2022.

Yes, that's right! Dandelion has a weedy, edible doppelganger!

Names

Hailing from the genus Hypochaeris (H.), sometimes spelled Hypochoeris (especially by our American friends), this very common weed plagues lawns, fields, footpaths, sidewalk and driveway cracks the world over. It is widely referred to as catsear, due to the angled shape and 'fur' on its flat leaves. It's low profile, often safely underneath mower blades, gives it another common name of flatweed. It is also regularly called false dandelion, as its uncanny resemblance to Taraxacum officinale makes this clone very difficult to distinguish. There are several hundred species, not all of which are naturalised in Australia but occur abundantly in other continents of the world. The most frequently encountered species found in Australia are the common catsear (H. radicata); the white-flowered catsear (H. albiflora); and the smooth-leaved catsear (H. glabra).

Habitat and Range

Catsear has roughly the same habits as dandelion, preferring to be first coloniser of disturbed ground in temperate and subtropical regions. It will be found abundantly in sidewalk and driveway cracks, footpaths, nature strips, public parks and fields. It is abundantly present in agricultural areas, eagerly popping up at the verge of crop rows and drainage ditches. It can also be found amongst dry eucalyptus forest, although other natives tend to out-compete it in this environment.

Figure 1. Distribution of Hypochaeris (all species) around the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Grows from a branched taproot
• Generally grows with a low, flat profile in a distinct basal rosette
• Leaves are 5-25 cm in length, significantly ribbed
• Leaves are thick with prominent fuzz (hairs are reduced/absent on H. glabra)
• Flower stalks are rigid, tough and branched
• Flower stalks are always green (never red or brownish)
• Multiple flowers occur on branched stalks, although only one flower per branch
• Flowers have a prominent central 'eye'
• Pollinated flowers turn into 'puffballs' virtually identical to dandelion puffballs
• All parts of the plant bleed white latex when cut or damaged

Catsear is, in almost all respects, virtually identical to dandelion and regularly misidentified as its close weedy relative. There are a few telltale features, however, to distinguish them. Firstly, catsear has thicker, fleshy, hairy leaves which are completely green (dandelion leaves have less noticeable fuzz and may turn red near the taproot end). Like dandelion, it grows in that distinctive basal rosette foliage pattern.

Figure 2. Overall catsear (H. radicata) plant profile, displaying the 'basal rosette'. This is a fairly large specimen, certainly one of the largest I have encountered. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. Excellent example of the 'basal rosette' leaf pattern and flat profile on this nature strip lawn (H. radicata). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 4. Example of white-flowered catsear (H. albiflora) plant profile. Atlas of Living Australia. © J. Bailey, 2018.


Figure 5. Closeup of the thick, furry leaves of common catsear (H. radicata). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 6. Cut leaf stem of H. radicata. There was no evident latex so I will have to redo this photo to show that. © JPM, 2022.


Secondly, catsear has flower stalks which branch into multiple flower heads. These stalks are always green in colour (dandelion stalks can become red-brown, especially as they set their puffballs, and never branch). Branching flower stalks is one of the key differences to true dandelion and will help most novice weed foragers identify catsear quickly.

Figure 7. Catsear (H. radicata, pictured) always has branching flower stalks. This is the key distinguishing feature from dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 8. Both catsear (H. radicata, pictured below) and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) have hollow flower stalks. Catsear stalks are very tough and rigid, however, and sometimes their hollowness is not apparent so that they seem to be solid. Dandelion has softer, hollow flower stems. © JPM, 2022.


Thirdly, catsear flowers often have a discernible, central 'eye' feature which is usually absent in dandelion. Flowers of most species of Hypochaeris are usually golden yellow, with H. albiflora of course being white. Flowers set into puffballs virtually identical to dandelion (if anything, catsear puffballs are slightly darker in colour than dandelion).

Figure 9. Unfurled petals can give catsear (H. radicata) flowers a prominent central 'eye'. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) can also exhibit this, but I find it is less common on them. © JPM, 2022


Figure 10. Example of white-flowered catsear (H. albiflora), also with central eye (bottom left). Branching flower stalks also clear. Atlas of Living Australia. © A.N. Schmidt-Lebuhn, 2015.


Figure 11. Catsear (H. radicata) puffballs are virtually identical to that of dandelion. © JPM, 2022.


Lastly, catsear taproots seem far more prone to branching/forking when compared to dandelion, the latter usually having taproots which are one solid, fleshy tuber.

Figure 12. Catsear taproot, clearly a mangle of forks. I thought this specimen was reminiscent of ginseng 'little man' taproots. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 13. The same taproot washed & scrubbed, reading for cooking, with an additional sample. © JPM, 2022.


Culinary Uses

Catsear can be used in similar ways to dandelion: add fresh leaves from young plants to salads for a bitter bite. Apelian (2021: 48) remarks that plunging leaves in a cold salt water bath does wonders for improving their otherwise bland flavour. I have steamed the leaves and added them to sandwich fillings like tuna & mayo, or egg & mayo. I have always found catsear to be as, if not more, bitter than dandelion so its taste is probably not for every palate. I find the bitterness disappears completely when it is chopped or blitzed into other foods like quiche or soup.

Flowers may be eaten whole, added to salads, or battered and deep fried tempura-style for a delicious afternoon snack. The flower petals can be used as tea. The petals are sweet and have the best flavour of the whole plant.

Roots may be roasted until crisp and ground into a powder for use as a diuretic coffee substitute (the colour looks like coffee, not the flavour). Due to their splayed nature, roots might also do well being pounded, battered and fried tempura style, but I have found that they tend to have far more woody cores than dandelion. Young plants are always more tender, both in leaves and roots.

Medicinal Uses

Catsear has no published medicinal benefits. Apelian (2021: 48) mentions in passing it could possibly be used as a detoxifier and digestive aid, as well as helping to stabilise blood-sugar levels. Like dandelion root, it is a probable source of inulin and lecithin.

Look-alikes

Catsear very much resembles dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), as covered above, as well as other plants of the Asteraceae family: sow thistle (Sonchus spp.), hawksbit (Leontodon taraxacoides), oxtongue (Helminthotheca echioides), young wild lettuces (Lactuca serriola, L. virosa and L. saligna) as well as the native yam daisy/murnong (Microseris scapigera). As covered in the article on dandelion, all of these lookalikes are edible so the risk of misidentification is minimal.

Caution

Catsear in Australia is allegedly home to an unidentified fungus which apparently causes neurological damage in horses and is responsible for stringhalt, a movement disorder involving uncontrolled hypertension (pulling up) of the hind legs of our large equine friends (Huntington et al., 1989). It is advised to keep catsear numbers low in fields where horses graze regularly. Cattle may also be affected, but to a lesser extent. More evidence is required to determine if this phenomenon also neurologically affects humans who consume this plant, but Diego Bonetto has been eating it for decades without ill effect.

Further Reading

Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 48
Atlas of Living Australia, "Hypochaeris albiflora." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Hypochaeris glabra." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Hypochaeris radicata." [LINK]
Bonetto (2021), "How to Identify Flatweed and Cat's Ear, and Use them in your Recipes." [LINK]
Deane, G. (2012), "False Dandelion for Lunch." [LINK]
Huntington, P.J. et al. (1989), "Australian Stringhalt - epidemiological, clinical and neurological investigations." Equine Veterinary Journal 21(4): 266-273. [LINK]
HorseDVM (n.d.), "Australian Stringhalt." [LINK]
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, p. 27.

Salsify root harvest. Newington, Sydney. © JPM, 2022.

Dandelion's big brother, you will not find a bigger puffball to wish upon! (Keep reading!)

Names

Hailing from the plant genus Tragopogon (T.), this hardy tuberous vegetable is common the world over, especially Europe and Asia, due completely, like the previous weeds before us, to its nimble, airborne seeds. An inevitable introduction to Australia and the USA during colonial settlement, these intrepid plants have a number of common English names: salsify, oyster plant, goatsbeard and, in England, Jack-go-to-bed-before-noon (I'm serious! ...more about that shortly). Colour variations in the names, for example purple salisfy or yellow salsify, indicate the two most common species: T. porrifolius and T. dubius respectively, the former of which is cultivated commercially in eastern European countries. There are other less common species with similar features (mostly varying in flower pigmentation) as those described below, although my American friends living on the West Coast might also like to search for T. pratensis (Duke, 2001: 197) in particular.

Habitat and Range

Salsify prefers temperate and subtropical climes, being a biannual in colder areas and a perennial in warmer ones. It grows best in loose, sandy soils which its solid, lengthy taproot can penetrate with ease. It struggles somewhat with Australia's nitrogen deficient loams, but it does appear with regularity in southern urban environs in New South Wales, Victoria and eastern Tasmania. It is a regular first-occupier of broken or disturbed ground, especially roadsides and fire trails. I have found it growing mostly undisturbed in many of Sydney's public parks and garden beds.

Figure 1. Distribution of Tragopogon (all species) around the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Grass-like bladed leaves, 10-40 cm in length, growing tight but alternately from the taproot (young plants), and clasping the flower stems (older plants)
• Leaves have a long, whitish central vein extending from the base to the tip
• Flower stems appear on 1+ year old plants
• Flower stems are solid, thick (as thick as asparagus) and branched, standing 80-150cm tall
• Flowers have 14-20 petals with a prominent calyx of 8-12 green blades underneath, coloured purple-mauve (T. porrifolius) or yellow (T. dubius, T. pratensis)
• Flower petals have a serrated tip
• Flowers close before noon on the day they are open!
• Flowers are very short lived (1-2 days - I have not found an open one yet!)
• Flowers turn into giant, rusty brown dandelion-like puffballs for wind dispersal
• Roots are thick and long, up to 30cm, occasionally branching
• All parts of the plant bleed a thick, white latex which will oxidise on contact with air into a staining, yellowish rubbery gum

Salsify can be difficult to identify at the ideal stage (between 1-2 years) because of its grass-like habit. Often it is easier to look for a lone mature plant's flower stalks rising up above its low grass-like profile as a sign there are likely more, and younger, plants to be discovered in the area.

Figure 2. Adult salsify (T. porrifolius) with major characteristics evident: flower buds, flower stalks, leaves clasping stalks, and white veins on the basal leaves. Newington, Sydney. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. A young salsify (T. porrifolius) very much resembles a strange patch of grass with whitish-green blades (also top right). © JPM, 2022.


Salsify flowers are rather distinctive, having the usual 'ray' type of the wider Asteraceae family they belong to, but with a far more 'blady' appearance than dandelion or catsear. The flowers will close themselves before noon (usually closer to 11am) on whatever day they open first. After pollination, they set into huge brown puffballs similar to dandelion, but about as large as a human fist; they are just a delight to blow into the wind! The seeds, attached individually to their airborne parachutes ('pappus') are long, thin and rough, approximately 2 cm (4/5 in.) in length.

Figure 4. The aptly named purple salsify (T. porrifolius). Note the bladed green calyx just behind the petals and serrated petal tips. The calyx closes over the flower daily before noon, making them look as they do in figure 2 above. Atlas of Living Australia. © Mel, 2020.


Figure 5. Variation in flower shading for purple salsify (T. porrifolius). Atlas of Living Australia. © C. Jonkers, 2021.


Figure 6. Common salsify or goatsbeard (T. dubius) has a yellow flower of the same shape; the meadow salsify (T. pratensis) is similar. Atlas of Living Australia. © B. King, 2012.


Figure 7. A giant brown puffball? Oh dear! The sure sign that salsify is near (T. porrifolius, pictured)! Note the spent flower at top of image with dried calyx. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 8. Closeup of the seed and parachute ('pappus'). © JPM, 2022.

Beneath the plant is a substantial taproot, like a thicker, more robust version of dandelion. They can reach up to 30 cm in length in ideal growing conditions. These taproots turn tough and woody after their 2nd year (in perennial regions) as the plant literally expends all its carbohydrates to produce flowers and seeds.

Figure 9. A young, delectable taproot. Note the lighter colour. This specimen was on the small side. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 10. A tough, old, woody root from a spent plant harvested in early summer (December). These can be dry-roasted to a crisp, but are still like chewing on a stick. © JPM, 2022.

Culinary Uses

All parts of this useful plant are edible. Young flower shoots can be used like asparagus, pickled or fried. Flower buds and flowers can be used in salads, pickles or cooked. Leaf bases, especially of young plants, can be eaten fresh or cooked however you like them.

The best part, however, is the taproot. These are preferably harvested before the second year when they turn woody (see figure 10 above), and in autumn as the plant prepares for winter, building up its carbohydrate and mineral content (Apelian, 2021: 106). Blanch or boil for the best culinary results, but they can be peeled and pan fried with butter, or roasted with oil, or eaten raw, doused in an acidic juice to prevent browing (e.g. lemon juice). The taste is like parsnip or turnip, although some people taste hints of oyster (I did not).

Figure 11. A selection of scrubbed and peeled salsify roots (T. porrifolius). Note the occasional forking. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 12. Roasted salsify (T. porrifolius) with a drizzle of macadamia oil at 180°C for 45 minutes. I think this was a bit long and I would shorten it to 30 or 35 minutes, or try boiling/pan frying. The several woody roots I had harvested turned into edible crisps (only one of them was still excessively woody, like eating... wood) so perhaps that is an accidental way to cook the old ones! © JPM, 2022.


Seeds can also be harvested and crushed into a coarse flour and used in baked goods like bread, granola and cookies (Duke, 2001: 196). Just make sure you remove the pappus (aerial parachute) first! This can be easily done by following the steps below (actually the reverse way that these puffballs actually open).

Figure 13. Grasp loosely below the puffball, doing your best not to disturb it with your breath or clothing. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 14. Lift upwards while gently squeezing all the parachutes towards the centre. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 15. Pull the puffball away from the stalk, pinching the parachutes between your palm and thumb. You can now pluck each seed from its parachute and place into a container for wild or garden sowing, or crushing. © JPM, 2022.


The sap of this plant can also be used as a chewing gum substitute. Apparently in Armenia, children would cut the stems or roots, and then dab the bleeding latex onto the rim of a glass and leave it to dry (Atlas of Living Australia). It can afterwards be removed, gathered into a ball and chewed. I have not attempted this, but can confirm that the sticky gum covered my knife and fingers after harvesting this plant and it was rather bothersome to remove!

Medicinal Uses

One source mentions that salsify, like dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), is high in inulin, a helpful prebiotic that promotes the growth of helpful bacterium in the digestive tract and an ideal food for diabetics, because inulin is a fructose sugar (not glucose) which will not increase blood-sugar levels upon consumption (Chevallier, 1996: 275). It can be used as a liver and gall bladder tonic in much the same way as dandelion. Duke made no mention of this plant in his tome on herbal medicines.

Look-alikes

Europe is home to at least one look-alike, plants of the genus Scorzonera. The most popular of these hails from Spain, the black or Spanish salsify (Scorzonera hispanica), or in German, Schwarzwurzel. The taproot looks very much like a purple carrot, but the rest of the plant is similar to common salsify (T. dubius). Black/Spanish salsify is not known to have emigrated to Australia, but there are limited reports of it having made its way to New Zealand. It can be used in much the same way, fortunately!

Figure 16. Black salsify (Scorzonera hispanica) flowers and stems. Wikimedia Commons. © Stefan Lefnaer, 2021.

Figure 17. Schwarzwurzel (black salsify, Scorzonera hispanica) on the left; Haferwurzel (purple salsify, T. porrifolius) on the right! Wikimedia Commons. © Benreis, 2021.


Further Reading

Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 106.
Atlas of Living Australia, "Tragopogon." [LINK]
Bonetto (2022), "How to Identify, Harvest and Eat Salsify. Oh My!" [LINK]
Chevallier (1996), Medicinal Plants, p. 275.
Deane (2012), "Edible Flowers: Part Fifteen" [LINK]
Duke (2001), Edible Weeds, pp. 196-197.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 101-105.

Will fat hens get fatter if they eat fat hen? © JPM, 2022.

Names

As there are a large variety of Chenopodium (C.) species, naming them all individually would be quite a task. A few of the more common ones are as follows: C. album, commonly called fat hen, lambsquarter, melde, white goosefoot and, in the USA (incorrectly!), pigweed; C. murale, nettleleaf goosefoot or Australian spinach; C. glaucum, glaucous goosefoot for its thick leaves. Other international species worth mentioning include C. bonus-henricus, Good King Henry, a common European species, and the Americas are home to the now well-regarded C. quinoa and the much-loved Mexican green, huazontle, C. nuttaliae (Grubb & Raser-Rowland, 2012: 58). Australia is home to a number of common endemic species, including C. curvispicatum, cottony saltbush, and C. desertorum, frosted goosefoot, alongside many others. This article is concentrated on C. album, but I will touch briefly on some of the others below.

Habitat and Range

Fat hen has a global distribution, being cultivated by humanity since ancient times. Its various species are common throughout the world on every continent save Antarctica. It is adapted to survive some harsh environments as several of the endemic Australian species are desert dwellers. Generally, fat hen thrives in fertile soil disturbed by human activity: agricultural fields, orchards, parks, gardens and road verges. It is known to pop up in animal droppings such as cow pats (Low, 1991: 46), earning it even more nicknames like 'Dirty Dick' and 'dungweed'. I have regularly found it growing happily in mulched public gardens in urban areas. The non-desert specialised species prefer temperate and subtropical climes, although they grow well in India and the tropics during their winter. Fat hen has rather persistent seeds; large plants can produce more than 500,000 seeds viable for 30-40 years; some farmland can retain 50 million Chenopodium seeds per hectare (Low, 1991: 46)! If fat hen grows near you, it will always grow near you, be sure of that!

Figure 1. Distribution of Chenopodium (all species) across the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Shrubby herb standing 20-180 cm tall
• Leaves shaped like goose feet with jagged edges
• Leaves have a white blush resembling flour, especially on the undersides, which can be rubbed off easily (C. mulare - no white blush)
• Leaves and branches grow alternately
• Leaves turn red-purple as the plant matures into late summer (other species like C. quinoa may be shades of green, white, orange, yellow or purple)
• Branches and growing tips terminate with amaranth-like flower and seed heads
• Seed heads turn colour when ripe (usually shades of green, brown, white, orange, yellow, red or purple)

Look for a bushy, upright herb that can grow quite large (up to 180 cm or more). They are often branched; young stems may have fine hairs but these are absent on older branches. New growth, be it on young plants or old ones, is tinged with a white frosting (actually very fine hairs) which can be rubbed off, especially on the undersides of leaves. Leaves are jagged and broad at the base, very much resembling a goose's foot (hence the name). Some species, especially the Australian desert species mentioned above, may have a crystalline or frosty appearance. The nettleleaf goosefoot (C. mulare) lacks the white blush and hairs completely and can easily be mistaken for nettle (Urtica urens).

Figure 2. Stature of a growing fat hen (C. album). This specimen is probably a month or two into growth (I nipped some of it off for harvest prior to taking the photo). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. A close-up of the distinctive features of fat hen (C. album) foliage: blush, jagged edges and fine hairs all evident. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 4. Undersides of the leaves (C. album) exhibit a pronounced white blush. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 5. The blush can be rubbed off easily with the fingers (C. album). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 6. Smooth, blush-free leaves of the nettleleaf goosefoot (C. mulare). Other features of the plant are virtually identical. Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Bennett, 2022.


Figure 7. Fleshy leaves of glaucent goosefoot (C. glaucum). Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Sim, 2019.


Figure 8. Grey, small foliage of cottony saltbush (C. curvispiculatum). It is endemic to arid regions of WA, SA, NT and western NSW. Atlas of Living Australia. © R. Best, 2013.


Figure 9. Dull, tiny leaves of the desert or frosted goosefoot (C. desertorum). This is endemic to the arid regions of WA, SA, NT and western NSW. Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Fagg, 2012.


Flowers emerge on compound stalks at the end of each branch and growing tip, very akin to amaranth with which Chenopodium is closely related. Leaves will be present up the length of the seed spikes. The flowers are tiny, typically with 6-10 protruding anthers. They pollinate and close quickly into capsules, each bearing a single seed. The seed heads often change colour in late summer, indicating they are ready to harvest.

Figure 10. Flowering stalks on fat hen (C. album). Atlas of Living Australia. © S. Pitt, 2022.


Figure 11. Close-up of a fat hen flower. Atlas of Living Australia. © R. Richter, 2020.


Figure 12. Close-up of the set seed pods. Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Fagg, 2012.


Figure 13. This fat hen is ready for seed harvest! Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Sim, 2020.


Figure 14. An example of the huge seed heads on C. quinoa. Quinoa often stands 180 cm or more tall and has various colours. Wikimedia Commons. © M. Shahid, 2008.


Culinary Uses

Most species of fat hen (and all of those mentioned above in this article) may be harvested for their greens or seeds. Young greens and the mealy white tops of growing stems can be eaten raw (but in moderation, see caution below for details). As a close relative of spinach, fat hen really shines when it is steamed or boiled, after which it can be used as a superb substitute for spinach in any recipe, with equal flavour to boot. Older leaves are best prepared this way in order to leach out their potentially toxic oxalates and gut-irritating saponins. I love mixing them with canned fish and mayonnaise for a nutritious and delicious sandwich filling.

Figure 15. Fat hen (C. album) harvested, washed and ready for cooking. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 16. Boiling all species of Chenopodium leaves prior to consumption is the best way to enjoy them (C. album, pictured). A careful observer may notice the scummy, white build-up of saponins on the walls of this pot, just above the water level. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 17. Cooked fat hen (C. album) ready for squeezing, chopping and use in my intended meal. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 18. Tinned wild-caught Alaskan salmon, boiled and diced fat hen (C. album), mayonnaise and sriracha sauce. Yum! © JPM, 2022.


Figure 19. The above mixture served on dark rye with cheddar. © JPM, 2022.


Seeds can be shaken out of heads with minimal threshing (Chenopodium seeds have no husks). These can be added to breads, biscuits, granola, milled into a nutritious flour, or steamed/boiled. We regularly pressure cook commercially-farmed quinoa seed with white rice, black rice, split peas and amaranth. I am yet to wild-harvest fat hen seed, either from C. album or one of the native Chenopodium species.

Medicinal Uses

Chenopodium comes up as a useful poultice for burns and other skin conditions like insect bites, itches, rashes and eczema (Apelian & Davis, 2020: 93-94; Apelian 2021: 81; Duke, 2001: 68). Simply mash the leaves in a mortar & pestle (or chew) and apply directly to the affected area, replacing as required. Apelian & Davis (2020: 93-94) further note that the crushed leaf poultice is decent at alleviating gout and joint inflammation (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis).

Apelian further notes that a decoction of the leaf (1 cup shredded leaf & 1 cup water, boiled for 10 minutes then strained) treats tooth decay and bad breath (Apelian & Davis, 2020: 94) and can calm inflammation from mouth ulcers and swollen gums. Swish the decoction in the mouth for a minute and spit out. Raw leaves can also be chewed for a similar effect. It is possible that oxalic acid crystals in the liquid perforate the bacterium causing the decay, thus reducing their numbers.

A few central American species of what were formerly Chenopodium but now mostly recognised as Dysphania (D.), specifically C. pueblense, D. ambrodioides and D. botrys, reek of varnish when their leaves or stems are crushed; D. anthelminticum is purportedly even stronger (Deane, 2011, who still uses the older taxonomy of Chenopodium for all). Their leaf and seed oils, especially the historically used wormseed or Mexican tea, D. ambrodioides, can be extracted with steam distillation and was once sparingly used to rid the body of worms, flukes and other intestinal parasites (Chevallier, 1996: 186), although he cautions it should be done only under specialist medical supervision. This drug is now banned in some jurisdictions. Duke does not recommend taking this medicine from these plants at all due to how toxic their oils are, but he does note a quirky use for it: a drop or two can be added to cooked beans to eliminate the flatulence afterwards (Duke 2001: 68-69; see also Duke 2002: 797-798)!

Caution

All manner of Chenopodium, like many weeds, have developed chemical defenses to prevent herbivores from consuming them. These plants are known accumulators of nitrates, which can become the more toxic nitrites in particularly high-nitrogen soils (Low, 1991: 46-47; Deane, 2011). The fatal adult dose of nitrates is 8-15 grams and nitrites is 1 gram (Low, 1991: 14). One would have to eat significant quantities of this plant (e.g. kilograms!) to be poisoned by these, but wartime doctors have reported this effect in starving civilian populations (Low, 1991: 15). Consume in moderation, especially raw, uncooked Chenopodium.

Similarly, Chenopodium contain oxalates and saponins in their seeds and greens. Raw consumption of these parts of the plant should be sparing, but cooking (especially boiling or steaming) will eliminate most of these toxins from the greens (Apelian 2021: 81). Seeds can be soaked for 24 hours prior to use to rid them of saponin content (Deane, 2011). Those susceptible to kidney stones or gastric upset should consume this plant only occasionally.

As covered above, some central American species of Chenopodium (now mostly categorised as Dysphania) exhibit a strong varnish smell from the crushed leaves or seeds. Such plants should generally not be eaten; medicinal usage of these plants was noted and cautioned against above.

Pollen allergies to Chenopodium flowers are also common. If you have common hay fever allergies, avoid disturbing flower heads until they set their seeds in midsummer, and/or remove flowering Chenopodium from your property by eating it when young. Be aware that guests may exhibit allergic reactions after eating the leaves and/or seeds of this plant.

Look-alikes

Chenopodium species have many look-alikes, including nettles (Urtica spp.), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) and the aforementioned Dysphania spp., a closely-related genus which usually has lobed and segmented (pinnate) leaves. Most nettles and some Dysphania are also edible cooked, as long as they do not reek of varnish. In Australia, fat hen (C. album) in particular can be easily confused with orache (Atriplex prostrata), a plant I also happened to find during my foraging for it (see also Low, 1991: 47).

Figure 20. Hastate orache (Atriplex prostrata) has very similar leaves and white blush to C. album, but has a low, sprawling profile and its lobed leaves grow oppositely, not alternately. It is as delectable and edible as fat hen, fortunately! © JPM, 2022.


Figure 21. Hastate orache (Atriplex prostrata) has lobed leaves to boot. © JPM, 2022.

Young blackberry nightshades (Solanum nigrum and Solanum americanum), as well as the potentially fatal deadly nightshade (Atropa bella-donna) may also be confused with this plant, but entirely lack the usual mealy white young leaves of most Chenopodium species. The leaves of these Solanaceae-family look-alikes should not be eaten.

Figure 22. Blackberry nightshade (Solanum nigrum and Solanum americanum) can resemble fat hen (especially C. album & C. mulare), but lacks any white blush and has trusses of small 5 petaled flowers which turn into those familiar black berries. This plant will be covered in more detail later in this series as its ripe berries are edible (delicious, actually). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 23. Illustration of deadly nightshade (Atropa bella-donna), displaying every feature of the plant except its root system. Note that it does not have jagged, goosefoot-shaped leaves, which is enough to distinguish it from most Chenopodium. The flowers and fruit are also distinct. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.

Further Reading

Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 81.
Apelian & Davis (2020), Herbal Remedies, pp. 93-94.
Atlas of Living Australia, "Chenopodium." [LINK]
Chevallier (1996), Medicinal Plants, p. 186.
Deane (2011), "Pigweed Potpourri." [LINK]
Duke (2001), Edible Weeds, pp. 68-69.
Duke (2002), Medicinal Herbs, pp. 797-798.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 54-58.
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, pp. 46-47.

Ah, the dreaded 'deadly' nightshade! How come I can eat them and not die, then? © JPM, 2022.

Names

Members of that illustrious family of plants, the Solanaceae, blackberry nightshade belongs to the genus Solanum (S.) and are relatives of common commercial crops such as potato, tomato, eggplant and tamarillo. They have, for the last century or so, carried a dishonourable reputation: they are the purportedly 'deadly' nightshade, the consumption of which is sure to be instantly fatal. Happily, those who hold such a view of these very common weedy shrubs are incorrect in their identification; deadly nightshade, otherwise known as greater morelle (or morel, but I do not want to confuse it with the mushroom), is the botanical plant Atropa bella-donna, although it is still a member of that same, wider Solanaceae family. More on that below.

Consequently, the naming of blackberry nightshades is often a perilous task, complicated by no shortage of botanical confusion between individual species. With that in mind, we can identify, at least generally, several popular species and their most common English names: glossy nightshade, American nightshade or wild currants (Solanum americanum); blackberry nightshade, black nightshade or petty morelle (S. nigrum); velvet nightshade (S. chenopodioides); green-berry nightshade or morelle verte (S. opacum); woolly or red nightshade (S. villosum); turkey berry or devil's fig (S. torvum); and the small-flowered nightshade (S. nodiflorum), a plant only genetically distinct from S. americanum and S. nigrum! There are more names and species than these, obviously, but they are the ones that will be most frequently encountered whilst wild foraging for this plant in most English-speaking climes.

Americans might also want to keep an eye out for one of their other native species, S. ptycanthum, noted for its purple- or maroon-tinged undersides of young foliage; this plant will not be otherwise covered here. There are scores of other edible (and inedible) species native to Europe, Africa and Asia, such as S. scabrum and S. macrocarpon, which will also not be otherwise covered below other than in the necessary caution at the conclusion of this article.

Habitat and Range

Blackberry nightshades are widely distributed across Australia and the world, being found on every continent save Antarctica. Many species are natives of Africa and the Americas and were mentioned in ancient herbal medicine texts such as Dioscorides' Tractatus de Materia Medica (or in its original Greek, Peri hulēs iatrikēs), dating back to the 1st century C.E, thus implying its ancient Mediterranean and Near-Eastern range as well. Due to the great difficulty of botanically distinguishing the various species, botanists remain in heated debate as to the natural range of many varieties of this plant; some have even argued that Solanum americanum originated in Australia (Deane, 2011)!

Figure 1. Illustration of Solanum nigrum from a 6th century palimpsest (over-written) manuscript of Dioscorides' de Materia Medica, a plant utilised since ancient times. Pinterest.


Generally, blackberry nightshades prefer moist, sub-tropical and temperate climes, although some species such as S. americanum and S. torvum are common all the way up the east coast as far as Cape York and other tropical areas besides. Blackberry nightshades will grow in all kinds of environments, although they prefer rich, preferrably high-nitrogen, agricultural soils. They can be found popping up in orchards, fields, parks, gardens, sidewalks, culverts, agricultural rows and bushland across most of the east coast, Tasmania, select inland regions and southern Western Australia. They will grow in full sun or full shade alike. When I was in the New England (Armidale) region in January 2021, about a month after good rains, blackberry nightshade (probably S. nigrum) was so prolific it was the single most common understorey shrub in that entire national park. Due to thousands of other native plants of the Solanum taxon being present in Australia, the distribution of each of main named species above will be shown on the maps.

Figure 2. Distribution of glossy nightshade (S. americanum). Some of these data points are undoubtedly confused with S. nigrum. Atlas of Living Australia.


Figure 3. Distribution of common blackberry nightshade (S. nigrum). Some of these data points are undoubtedly confused with S. americanum. Atlas of Living Australia.


Figure 4. Distribution of velvet nightshade (S. chenopodioides). Some of these data points are likely confused with S. nigrum. Atlas of Living Australia.


Figure 5. Distribution of the native green-berry nightshade (S. opacum). Atlas of Living Australia.


Figure 6. Distribution of devil's fig (S. torvum). Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification

Key Identifying Features

• Shrubby weed growing between 60-120 cm (2-4 ft.) tall
• Leaves of variable shape, usually 3 to 10 cm in length, spear-tip shaped to slightly oval, with smooth or jagged edges
• Leaves and stems usually green, but occasionally have tinges of purple
• Flowers appear on stalks emerging 1-3 cm (1/2 - 1 in.) away from the nearest leaf node or stem joint
• Flowers in clusters of 1-10 on each stalk, sometimes in 'tresses' (like cherry tomatoes)
• Flowers have five white (rarely, purple-tinged) petals, sometimes swept back, with an obvious yellow core
• Flowers self-pollinate by vibration (usually wind)
• Flowers turn into unripe green berries slightly smaller than a pea
• Unripe berries have green flesh surrounding the 20-80 tiny seeds
• Ripe berries usually turn black (glossy black, S. americanum & S. nodiflorum; matte black, S. nigrum & S. chenopodioides), but occasionally chlorine green-yellow (S. opacum & S. torvum) or red (S. vellosum)
• Ripe berries have purple (rarer, yellow or red) flesh surrounding the 20-80 tiny seeds

Blackberry nightshades are not terribly difficult to identify and have several stand-out features, especially in contrast with the true deadly nightshade (Atropa bella-donna, see Look-alikes below for full comparison of these plants). They are, first of all, a common weedy shrub usually 60-120 cm in height, often branched from firm, stout stems that often have a faint fuzz of white hair on them. Leaves are spear-tip shaped to oval, and there is significant variation in the edges, from smooth to serrated.

Figure 7. A stand of glossy nightshade (S. americanum) in a park at Chiswick. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 8. A smaller, single plant (probably S. americanum) displaying more serrated-type foliage. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 9. The black-purple stems of this damaged-but-recovered S. americanum displays the significant genetic colour variation within this plant genus. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 10. Foliage undersides (S. americanum, pictured) show no significant colour change, except the American species S. ptycanthum. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 11. Another example of leaf variation, probably S. americanum. Note the fuzz on the stems. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 12. Leaf and colour variation. This is possibly S. nodiflorum but the glossy berries might suggest S. americanum instead. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 13. Example of leaf variation. This S. americanum has distinctly serrated leaf edges. The stem hairs are barely evident just below the flower buds. © JPM, 2022.

Flowers appear on stalks that sprout 1-3 cm (1/2-1 in.) away from the closest leaf nodes (see also figure 12 above). Flowers are small, usually 5-10 mm (1/4-1/2 in.), with five white or purple-tinged petals, and five green sepals on the connecting calyx. The flowers have a central yellow 'core' of five very tight stamens, usually completely concealing the single pistil in the centre. The flowers are bisexual and easily self-pollinate, quickly forming small trusses of unripe green berries. Berries will turn black when ripe; some species are a glossy black and others a matte black, a few of the species turn pale yellow or red when ripe. Ripe berries have a consistent flesh colour inside coating the seeds; if it is still green it will still be toxic. Fully ripened berries are edible if they are not bitter.

Figure 14. A typical flower stalk emerging from a glossy nightshade (S. americanum). Note the five petals and five-sepalled calyx (closed buds), yellow anther 'core' and these ones actually show a protruding pistil tip. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 15. Not my best photography, but the purple tinge on the petals of these glossy nightshade (S. americanum) flowers is obvious. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 16. Flowers drop off and the ovary grows into these tiny, smaller-than-a-pea unripe berries (S. americanum, pictured). The five sepals on the calyx is very obvious. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 17. It might look ready, but the one black berry on this glossy nightshade (S. americanum) truss was still green inside. This is not an example of a matte berry (see below). © JPM, 2022.


Figure 18. Ripe and ripening berries of glossy nightshade (S. americanum) with a surprise interloper. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 19. Note the matte black on this common blackberry nightshade (S. nigrum). Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Fagg, 2010.


Figure 20. Again, matte black berries are very distinct on the velvet nightshade (S. chenopodioides). This species is fuzzy all over, similar to many native bush tomatoes, also from the Solanaceae family of plants. Atlas of Living Australia. © R. Callaway, 2016.


Figure 21. The green-berry nightshade (S. opacum) barely changes colour when it is ripe. Atlas of Living Australia. © Bellacorella, 2021.


Figure 22. Devil's figs (S. torvum) have perhaps the most distincly lobed leaves, and the fruit turn yellow-orange when ripe. Atlas of Living Australia. © Anonymous, 1997.


Figure 23. Woolly or red nightshade (S. vellosum), common throughout Africa, has distinct red-orange (occasionally yellow) ripe berries. Wikimedia Commons. © S. Lefnaer, 2019.

Culinary Uses

These plants surprisingly did not make the culinary weed lists compiled by either Apelian (2021) or Duke (2001). Other wild food foragers speak highly of the berries (e.g. Low, 1991; Deane, 2011; Grubb & Raser-Rowland, 2012), a testimony with which I wholeheartedly agree. The fresh, fully ripe berries, that is, fruit that is completely black (or yellow/red for species that ripen to those colours) with no tinges of green inside or outside, are usually very tasty, having a fruity, grape-like burst followed by a lingering, sweet tomato aftertaste. All species mentioned above have black fruit except the ripe, pale-chlorine yellow berries of S. opacum and the red-fruited S. villosum. Any ripe berries from this family of plants that taste suddenly bitter or are still green inside should immediately be spat out and the plant neglected or harvested whole for medicinal uses (see below).

Fruit may be eaten fresh in-situ, cooked into pies, pastries, jams and sauces, and dried/frozen for later use. Blackberry nightshade was frequently used by colonists, especially on the frontiers and during Australia's frequent droughts and colonial supply shortages (Low, 1991: 99). Where these plants occur abundantly, there are no shortage of berries. These plants are also commercially cultivated for fruit in many African countries (especially Kenya). Urban environments only rarely have more than half a dozen plants occupying an area, making berry foraging mere trail snacks.

Figure 24. What to expect inside the fruit of a glossy nightshade (S. americanum). Ripe fruit are very soft and burst easily after picking. Notice the dark purple penetrates the entire fruit and there is virtually no green. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 25. Insides of a ripe green-berry nightshade (S. opacum). All yellow, little green. Atlas of Living Australia. © G. Steenbeeke, 2020.


The double- or triple-boiled leaves, especially young leaves, are commonly referred to in the literature as a popular green in sub-Saharan Africa (Ojiewo et al., 2013) and south-east Asia, especially Papua New Guinea (Lim, 2013 VI: 320; Low, 1991: 98; Deane, 2011). Some African species, such as S. scabrum, have been selectively bred so as to greatly increase their foliage production over fruit or flowers (Ojiewo et al., 2013: 10-11). Leaf toxicity is also greatly variable from region to region, from 80 mg/kg to 170 mg/kg of fresh plant material, and the human palate can detect the bitter taste of the toxic alkaloids at approximately 140 mg/kg (Ojiewo et al., 2013: 11) and caution is advised when preparing leaves for consumption. I have not yet tried any culinary preparation of any of this plant's foliage due to the availability of other, superior edible greens such as purslane (Portulaca oleracea), sow thistle (Sonchus oleracea), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), fat hen (Chenopodium album) and various wild mustards (Brassica spp.), all of which do not require double- or triple-boiling to prepare safely. Ojiewo et al (2013: 11) do mention, however, that the African nightshades selectively bred for greenery are excellent dietary sources of bioavailable iron, containing up to 100% RDI (recommended daily intake for an adult) of iron in a 100 g serve.

Medicinal Uses

Blackberry nightshade, especially the specific species S. nigrum, has been utilised for millenia for a variety of preparations as the ancient testimony of Dioscorides' de Materia Medica attests. Many of the blackberry nightshade plant extracts exhibit antimicrobial activity, lower blood pressure and have anti-inflammatory modes of action (Lim, 2013 VI: 321-323). Other research has justified the plant's narcotic (painkilling) properties resulting from activity of its steroidal glycoalkaloids solasonine, solamargine and P-solamargine (0.0-2.0% w/w in unripe berries and foliage); there are also some steroidal saponins present (Gruenwald et al., 2000: 101-102). Gruenwald et al. also mention that ingestion of small quantities of medicinal preparations of the plant can greatly reduce stomach ulcers caused by excessive aspirin use (see also Lim, 2013 VI: 408).

Bruised fresh leaves of S. americanum and S. nigrum may be applied topically as a poultice to alleviate inflammation, rheumatism and skin infections such as ringworm, burns and ulcers; many tropical cultures also use the decoctions of the plant roots topically to treat conjunctivitis and other eye infections (Lim, 2013 VI: 323-324, 411-413, 438).

Herbal preparations start by collecting leaves while the plant is flowering; the whole plant while flowering; or whole plant with berries intact (unripe or ripe). The foliage or whole plant is then air dried and boiled in water (Gruenwald et al., 2000: 101). The following preparations and dosages are recorded by Gruenwald (2000: 102):


Look-alikes

As a young plant, it is possible to confuse various blackberry nightshades with other plants of the wider Solanaceae family, as well as some other common edibles such as fat hen (Chenopodium spp.), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) and some smaller nettles (e.g. Urtica urens). Wait for plants to flower/fruit to ensure positive identification if you are not certain.

For American, European, African and Asian readers, it is very possible to confuse this plant with the potentially fatal, and real, deadly nightshade (Atropa bella-donna); deadly nightshade is not found in Australia or New Zealand. This plant was introduced as a potential look-alike in my article on fat hen (Chenopodium spp.) but I will repeat the caution here in its entirety with that same helpful illustration. At younger stages of growth, deadly nightshade can be more easily confused with blackberry nightshade. Wait for flowers to appear for easy identification! Firstly, deadly nightshade has very distinctive, trumpet-shaped purple-mauve flowers. Second, its five long green sepals (together, the calyx) extend well past the periphery of the fruit. In contrast, blackberry nightshades (all Solanum spp. mentioned above) have five-petalled, star-shaped, white or white-purple, tomato-like flowers, and its green, five-sepalled calyx never extends beyond the fruit itself; some species of blackberry nightshade have curled sepals and others have sepals that hug the top part of the fruit but never extend and stick out beyond the fruit skin itself. Thirdly, the fruiting stalks for Atropa bella-donna also appear from the leaf node (where the leaf stalk meets the plant's stem); blackberry nightshade consistently sprouts its fruiting stalks about 1 to 3 cm (1/2 to 1 in.) below or above the closest leaf node.

Figure 26. Note the purple-mauve, trumpet flowers and protruding calyx which marks Atropa bella-donna as the real deadly nightshade. Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain.

Caution: Toxic Alkaloids!

Blackberry nightshade leaves and unripe berries are high in solasonine, mentioned above, a steroidal glycoalkaloid and a natural narcotic (painkiller) with side effects including nausea, vomiting and intense sweating. A toxic, but not fatal, dose is approximately 200 mg/kg fresh plant weight or 1,000 mg/kg dry plant weight (Ojiewo, 2013: 11). The human palate can detect the bitter taste of this alkaloid at concentrations of approximately 140 mg/kg (Ojiewo, 2013: 11). This toxin is, fortunately, water soluble and will almost completely leach out in double- or triple-boiled preparations of the greens; discard the liquid unless you are planning medicinal preparations mentioned above. Ripe fruit which tastes bitter should be eaten sparingly or not at all. As with all wild foods, enjoy in moderation!

Further Reading

Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum americanum." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum chenopodioides." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum nigrum." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum nodiflorum." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum opacum." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Solanum villosum." [LINK]
Deane (2011), "American Nightshade: A Much-Maligned Edible." [LINK]
Duke (2002), Medicinal Herbs, pp. 96-97.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland (2012), Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 35-39.
Gruenwald et al. (2000), "Black Nightshade." PDR, pp. 101-102.
Lim (2013), "Solanum americanum." Edible Medicinal Plants Vol. VI, pp. 318-325.
Lim (2013), "Solanum nigrum." Edible Medicinal Plants Vol. VI, pp. 395-418.
Lim (2013), "Solanum torvum." Edible Medicinal Plants Vol. VI, pp. 429-441.
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, pp. 98-99.
Ojiewo et al. (2013), "Exploiting the Genetic Diversity of Vegetable African Nightshades," Bioremediation, Biodiversity and Bioavailabilty 7(1): 6-13 [Pdf download LINK]

Devotee of sidewalk cracks the world over. © JPM, 2022.

Names

Another of the world's ancient weeds, this fleshy, drought-adaptable summer plant hails from the genus Portulaca (P.) and goes by a few English names: purslane and pigweed are the two most common; it is also called moss rose, especially in the USA, although citizens of that country should be aware that the unrelated fat hen or goosefoot (Chenopodium album) is also called pigweed there. Some of the older colonial literature such as the diaries of the failed Bourke & Wills expedition and colonial botanist Ferdinand von Mueller may also refer to this plant as portulac. The First Nations people across the world have as many traditional names for it as there are tribes.

There are more than 20 native and introduced species in Australia, the most common being common purslane, P. oleracea. Other Australian species of note include slender pigweed (P. filifolia), a thin-leaved arid clime variant; buttercup pigweed (P. intraterranea), a large-flowered and very important desert bush food plant; and heart-plant (P. bicolor), noted for its yellow or pink flowers, although it is probably too small to bother harvesting. One popular ornamental purslane is the large-flowered P. grandiflora, which is typically too bitter to eat, as is P. pilosa, noted for its pink flowers and burning, bitter foliage (Deane, 2011, comments below article). A seaside species is also a known edible (Sesuvium portulacastrum), but this will be covered in detail in another foraging article.

Habitat and Range

Purslane is a reasonably common plant and another first occupier of desolate, disturbed or difficult ground. Its fleshy stems, leaves and taproots are adept at storing water, enabling this intrepid adventurer to survive to reproduction in otherwise inhospitable environs such as pavement cracks, roadsides, rocky ground, and deserts. It is common in trampled places such as footpaths, trails, driveways, agricultural roads and orchard rows, and will spring up everywhere, especially your garden, after substantial rain. Colonial explorers relished themselves on this plant during their barren journeys into Australia's dry interior, where purslane may still be found in abundance. Purslane prefers warmer weather, being more prolific in the northern and arid regions of the continent. It does occur abundantly in southern parts of Australia particularly between spring and autumn (September-April), and being far less common in Tasmania and southern Western Australia. As a plant with global distribution, purslane may be found on every continent save Antarctica.

Figure 1. Distribution of Portulaca (all species) across the continent. Atlas of Living Australia.


Identification
Key Identifying Features

• Thick, greenish-red, fleshy stems growing from a central taproot, usually ground-hugging but may prop up to 15-25 cm in height
• Stems are smooth with a clear sap (very important!)
• Leaves emerge from the stem joints or at the stem tips
• Leaves are 1-3 cm, smooth and stubby with rounded tips and fleshy in texture (some species leaves may be heart-shaped or thin)
• Flowers are yellow (some species of Portulaca may be dark or light pink) with five petals, appearing at stem joints or stem tips.
• Flowers set into small, green, lidded capsules
• Capsule lids pop off when ripe, revealing dozens of tiny black seeds
• Some species (e.g. P. filifolia and P. tuberosa) may have a substantial tap root.

The easiest identifying feature of these iconic plants is their smooth, fleshy, reddish sprawling stems. The stem structure branches outwards from a central tap root. Leaves are similarly smooth, fleshy and stubby, occurring at the stem joints or stem tips. Some coastal or northern native species like P. filifolia have very thin, fleshy leaves, similar to round-leaf pigface (Disphyma crassifolium). It is important to reiterate that purslane is glabrous (smooth, hairless) and its sap is clear or absent; any plant with similar foliage but drips white, milky sap when damaged or has prominent fuzzy stems is not a purslane!

Figure 2. Common purslane (P. oleracea, centre) is instantly recognisable by its fleshy stems and sprawling habit. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 3. A close-up of the smooth, reddish, branching stems of P. oleracea. Leaf positions at the stem joints or stem tips is also obvious. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 4. Foliage of common purslane (P. oleracea) is rounded and stubby. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 5. Foliage of the slender pigweed (P. filifolia) tapers to a stubby tip. Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Fagg, 2020.


Figure 6. Buttercup pigweed (P. intraterranea) has a foliage profile very similar to P. oleracea, excepting its larger flowers. Atlas of Living Australia. © R.W. Purdie, 2016.


Figure 7. Heart-plant (P. bicolor) is aptly named! Atlas of Living Australia. © K. Nicolson, 2021.


Flowers are small and short-lived, lasting less than a few days at most. The common purslane (P. oleracea), slender pigweed (P. filifolia) and buttercup pigweed (P. intraterranea) all have yellow flowers; some other species such as heart plant (P. bicolor) may also have pink or whitish-pink flowers. Flowers have five petals (occasionally, four or six), but this feature can be difficult to discern on common purslane (P. oleracea); other species have very conspicuous flowers (see figures 5-7 above). Flowers will self-pollinate and quickly turn into tiny, green capsules shaped like urns, including a tapered lid! Ripe capsules will turn slightly yellow at the base and their lids will pop off, emptying their dozens of minuscule black seeds for dispersal by wind.

Figure 8. The small, yellow flowers of common purslane (P. oleracea) appear in the leaf joints. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 9. Close-up of a common pigweed (P. oleracea) flower. The number of petals on this species is difficult to discern. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 10. After pollination, the flowers turn into small, tapered capsules (P. oleracea, pictured). One of the capsules has no lid, showing the black seeds inside. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 11. Close-up of the tiny, edible seeds and an open pod of common purslane (P. oleracea). Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.


Culinary Uses

Purslane is one of those ancient vegetables with thousands of years of recorded human use on every continent. All sources report that purslane is extremely high in Vitamin E (Chevallier, 1996; Duke, 2002; Apelian, 2021) and purslane greens are oddly high in omega 3 fatty acids, although Duke (2002: 156) notes that walnut or mustard (Brassicaceae) oils have more omega 3s. Modern nutritional testing shows just how good it is (Williams, 2012: 320):

This unassuming weedy herb is a good source of carbohydrate (40.7%), protein (23.5%) and fibre (8%). It can also have a useful fatty acid content (5.3%; 8.5 mg/g net weight) that contributes omega-3 fatty acids to the diet, notably α-linolenic acid. It is rich in vitamin C (ascorbic acid), β-carotene and B vitamins (particularly B1, B2 and folic acid). Vitamin E levels may also be significant (α-tocopherol 230 mg/g dry weight).

The whole plant is low in sodium, with higher levels of potassium (709–940 mg), magnesium (206–266 mg) and calcium (97–112 mg). However, the root can be much higher in potassium (1170 mg) with good levels of magnesium (61 mg) and calcium (382 mg). Therefore while a damper (flour and water) preparation would be low in sodium, the levels of other minerals can be quite good: potassium, magnesium, calcium – as well as being high in iron (13–15 mg) and zinc (3–5 mg), and a low amount of copper. The leaf and seed paste levels can be exceptionally high in iron (54 and 64 mg, respectively).

Portulaca pilosa can be equally high in iron (5.5–38 mg) and potassium (500–1000 mg); with reasonable amounts of sodium (50–120 mg), magnesium (170–300 mg), calcium (265–300 mg) and some zinc (1–1.7 mg).

Click to expand...

All parts of the plant are edible, although most of the use tends to be the above-ground parts: leaves, stems and seeds. Not all species are equally delectable, however, so it is worth trying a plant before committing to harvest. Leafy shoots of young plants, prior to flowering, can be eaten raw in salads, but this should be sparing due to this plant's oxalic acid content. Chopped raw leaves go well with yoghurt, e.g. in tsatsiki or raiti; in fact the calcium and perhaps microbiota in dairy goes a long way to alleviating adverse effects of the oxalates in the raw plant. Older plants (that is, flowering or post-flowering) are much better cooked like spinach, blanched a few minutes and rinsed in cold water, after which it can be liberally added to stir fries, soups and stews, chopped up for sandwiches etc. The juicy, thick stems of adult plants make ideal pickles: brine, vinegar, or salt & white wine (Duke, 2002).

Figure 12. Purslane is best boiled before consumption to remove oxalic acid. © JPM, 2022.


Figure 13. A fatty-acid feast! Lamb cutlets, eggs and butter-fried purslane! © JPM, 2022.


Purslane seeds are incredibly nutritious, packing 19.8 g of protein, 10.4 g of fat and 55.4 g carbohydrates per 100 grams (Low, 1989: 220-221). Their minuscule size makes them somewhat tedious to harvest, however. Australian First Nations tribes, particularly those of the central desert after rains, would heap up massive piles of this plant onto kangaroo skins or spinifex mats (a tarp would work just as well nowadays) and leave them to dry. The piles would then be beaten and the tiny seeds would fall out of their pods and were collected in large amounts and subsequently ground with stones and eaten or baked into cakes (Low, 1989: 87). Each plant can bear upwards of 10,000 seeds, making harvest of this plant an important desert food staple even today.

The desert species, buttercup purslane (P. intraterranea), also has quite a substantial taproot, as can slender pigweed (P. filifolia), both of which are worth roasting and taste somewhat like potato (Low, 1988: 156). Common purslane taproots are not as substantial but still contain valuable carbohydrates and minerals and can likewise be eaten.

Figure 14. Taproots of common purslane (P. oleracea) can be eaten but are not as substantial as the desert species. Sydney Olympic Park. © JPM, 2022.

Figure 15. If you live in the desert, slender pigweed often has a taproot worth roasting. Atlas of Living Australia. © M. Fagg, 2020.


Some sources mention that purslane plants can be dried and burnt into a fine ash which makes a reasonable, albeit alkaline, salt substitute (Apelian 2021: 103). This salt is likely high in potassium rather than sodium (see Williams' nutritional analysis above).

Medicinal Uses

It should be of no surprise that this versatile plant has many applications in herbal medicine. Ivan Ross (2003: 407-410) lists more than 30 clinically proven pharmacological activities for common purslane (P. oleracea); Duke (2002: 599) lists 28, including antibacterial, antioxidant, analgesic (painkilling), antitumour, antiulcer, and molluscicidal. Most of the herbal preparations were methanol or ethanol (95%) extracts; some of the antibacterial preparations used acetone extracts; others utilised hot water extracts (see Ross, 2003, and the references cited there for details). A full review of purslane (P. oleracea) phytochemistry and its pharmacological effects is available in Zhang et al. (2015).

More specific applications include those detailed by Apelian & Davis (2020: 126), including as an effective treatment for bronchial (breathing) issues like asthma by eating the vegetable or taking a methanol extract. They also supply a recipe for a purslane (P. oleracea) and mullein (Verbascum thapsus) anti-asthma medicine (1 dropper = single discharge of a rubber dropper); drink in parts throughout the day or completely as needed to alleviate coughing and improve pulmonary circulation and oxygen absorption in the lungs:

• 3 droppers purslane tincture
• 1 1/2 droppers of mullein tincture
• 1/4 cup water.

Apelian & Davis also discuss consuming seeds or seed extract for alleviation of diabetes; daily topical application of an alcohol plant extract for fungal infections like athlete's foot, jock itch and ringworm; and either 1 tsp purslane tincture or 2 tsp fresh purslane juice daily to lower cholesterol.

Chevallier (1996: 253) remarks that purslane juice or a decoction is useful for skin ailments like boils and carbuncles, in addition to its aforementioned antibiotic/antifungal effects useful for treating hookworm; purslane juice is diuretic (causes urination, like coffee does); and mucilaginous (gel-jelly) properties in the digested vegetable to help sooth gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea and dysentery.

Duke (2001: 156-157) mentions that American First Nations tribes had varied medicinal uses for the plant: Cherokee herbalists used the juice for earache and parasites; the Iriquois made a poultice for burns and bruises; and the Navajo deployed its mucilage to alleviate stomachache.

Look-alikes

Spotted spurge (Euphorbia maculata) is the most probable misidentification for the novice purslane-hunter (Apelian, 2021: 304). It has a similar, ground-sprawling habit and reddish stems, although its leaves grow oppositely the length of its stems, unlike purslane which has leaves only at stem joints or stem tips. Secondly, spotted spurge sometimes has a dark spot in the centre of the leaf, hence the name. Thirdly, all spurges will drip an acrid, white latex as their primary defense; this milky sap is very potent and excellent at dissolving proteins such as human skin (yes, it can be used to dissolve warts, corns, skin cancers, moles, etc, but with great care!). Purslane has clear or no obvious sap when its stems are damaged. Fourthly, spotted spurge has tiny white flowers that turn into hairy capsules; purslane capsules are smooth and flowers are never white (some purslane species may have faint pink flowers). Lastly, spotted spurge has fine, glassy hairs on the stems and the leaves, especially leaf undersides; purslane is glabrous = hairless!

Figure 16. Spotted spurge (Euphorbia maculata) is a common weed which could be easily confused with purslane (P. oleracea). Spotted spurge always drips white, milky sap, a key identifying distinction. Atlas of Living Australia. © G. Taseki, 2021.


Figure 17. Close-up of spotted spurge stems, showing the miniscule, clear hairs (also on the leaves); purslane is hairless. Notice the leaves grow opposite each other the whole stem length, also unlike purslane. Atlas of Living Australia.© T. Mesaglio, 2021.


Caution!

Raw purslane is high in oxalic acid, far more than spinach, a plant toxin that can result in various mineral deficiencies and kidney stones. It is soluble in water and nullified partially by high-calcium or high-magnesium foods such as dairy and nuts. Consume raw purslane in moderation and consider boiling or pickling this plant if you intend more regular consumption.

Further Reading

Apelian & Davis (2020), Herbal Remedies, pp. 125-126.
Apelian (2021), Forager's Guide, p. 103.
Atlas of Living Australia, "Portulaca oleracea." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Portulaca bicolor." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Portulaca filifolia." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Portulaca interterranea." [LINK]
Atlas of Living Australia, "Portulaca grandiflora." [LINK]
Chevallier (1996), Medicinal Plants, p. 253.
Bonetto (2021), "Purslane, the Summer Edible Weed that Gives So Much." [LINK]
Deane (2011), "Purslane: Omega 3 Fatty Weed." [LINK]
Duke (2001), Edible Weeds, pp. 156-157.
Duke (2002), Medicinal Herbs, pp. 599-600.
Grubb & Raser-Rowland, Weed Forager's Handbook, pp. 96-100.
Low, Tim (1988), Wild Food Plants of Australia (Sydney: Angus & Robertson), p. 156.
Low (1989), Bush Tucker: Australia's Wild Food Harvest (Sydney: Angus & Robertson), pp. 86-87, 138-139, 151, 220-221.
Low (1991), Wild Herbs, p. 90.
Ross, I. A. (2003), Medicinal Plants of the World, Vol. I (Totowa: Humana Press), pp. 405-414.
Williams, Cheryl (2012-13), Medicinal Plants in Australia, Vol. III, pp. 319-320 & Vol. IV, pp. 118-123.
Zhang et al. (2015), "Portulaca oleracea L.: A Review of Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Effects." BioMed Research International 2015: 925631 [LINK]